JLPT N5–N3 Grammar · Free
JLPT Grammar (N5–N3) — Study Guide
Clear, example-first explanations of every core JLPT grammar point from N5 to N3 — with real example sentences and common mistakes.
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Original study material by Mainichi JLPT. Not affiliated with the Japan Foundation, JEES, or the official JLPT.
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The foundations: particles, the copula, verb and adjective forms, and the first everyday patterns.
Particles 25 Small words that show each word’s job in the sentence.
- は wa は (wa) — the topic particle は marks the topic of the sentence — the thing you have chosen to talk about ("as for ___"). It is written は but always pronounced wa.
- を o を (o) — the object particle を marks the direct object — the noun that receives the action of the verb. It is used only as a particle and is read o.
- に ni に (ni) — time, destination, location に points to a specific time, a destination you move to, or the place where something exists.
- で de で (de) — place of action & means で marks where an action takes place, or the means, tool or language used to do it.
- と to と (to) — and / together with と joins nouns into a complete list ("A and B") and marks the person you do something with.
- の no の (no) — possessive & noun linker の links two nouns: possession ("X's Y") or description (A の B = a B related to A).
- へ e へ (e) — direction へ marks the direction of movement — toward a place. It overlaps with に for destinations. Written へ but read e.
- も mo も (mo) — also / too も means "also / too". It replaces は or を to say the same thing applies to another item.
- か ka か (ka) — the question marker か at the end of a sentence turns it into a question. No question mark is needed.
- から kara–made から・まで — from … to … から marks a starting point and まで an ending point — in time or space. They are often used together.
- より yori より (yori) — than (comparison) より marks the thing you compare against: "A は B より …" = A is more … than B.
- だけ dake ～だけ — “only ～” Attaches to a word and limits the range to just that, with nothing else. It follows nouns and quantities, and also the plain form of verbs and adjectives.
- で de ～で — place, means and cause A particle on a noun that shows where an action takes place, what means or tool is used, and sometimes the cause. It answers どこで (where) and 何で (by what).
- が ga ～が — marks the subject The particle that marks the subject of a sentence. It is used for new information and for events happening in front of you, and also marks the object of words like 好き and ほしい.
- か ka か — the question particle A particle at the end of a sentence that makes it a question. It is added after polite sentences (〜です, 〜ます), and also to sentences with a question word.
- まで made ～まで — “until / up to ～” A particle for the end point of time, place or an ongoing action. 〜から〜まで shows both the start and the end.
- も mo ～も — “also / too” A particle used to say that the same applies to something else as well. It replaces は, が or を.
- なあ naa ～なあ — sentence-final feeling A sentence-final particle that lets feelings out: admiration, a sigh or a wish. It is often used like a monologue and is casual.
- ね ne ～ね — “..., right? / isn’t it?” A sentence-final particle for seeking agreement, confirming, or sharing a feeling. It is used when speaker and listener are aware of the same thing.
- に ni ～に — time, destination, place of existence A particle for a point in time, a destination, the place where something exists, and the target of an action. It attaches to nouns.
- に/へ ni/e に / へ — direction and destination (“to ～”) After a place noun, に and へ show the destination of a movement verb such as 行く, 来る, 帰る. へ is read ‘e’. In this use the two are almost interchangeable. They attach to a noun.
- の no の — possession (“’s / of”) and ‘the one that ～’ の links two nouns, as in ‘B of A’ or ‘A’s B’. It can also stand in for a noun that has already been mentioned, giving ‘the ～ one’. Noun + の + noun; adjective (い) + の for ‘the ～ one’.
- を o / wo を — marks the direct object を marks the thing that a verb acts on, the direct object: ‘do something to ～’. It follows a noun and comes before a verb. It is written を but pronounced ‘o’.
- と to と — “and” (nouns) and “with” と has two basic uses for beginners: it joins nouns like ‘and’ (パンと牛乳), and it marks a partner with whom you do something, like ‘with’ (母と行く). It attaches to nouns. It has other uses too (quoting, ‘if’), learned later.
- は wa - topic marker は — the topic marker は marks the topic of the sentence, the thing you are talking about: ‘As for ～, …’. It is written は but pronounced ‘wa’. It attaches to a noun and is used in the basic pattern A は B です.
Noun sentences (copula) 1 How to say “A is B”, and make it negative or past.
Verb basics 4 The core conjugations every verb uses.
- ます masu 〜ます — the polite verb form The ます ending makes a verb polite. It changes for negative (ません), past (ました) and negative past (ませんでした).
- て te て-form — connecting & requests The て-form links actions ("do X and then Y"), makes polite requests with ください, and forms the progressive with います.
- ない nai ない-form — the plain negative The ない-form is the plain (casual) negative of a verb: "do not do". The polite equivalent is ません.
- た ta た-form — the plain past The た-form is the plain (casual) past of a verb: "did". The polite equivalent is ました, and it is built like the て-form.
Verb forms 6 Useful verb endings and their changes.
- ないで naide ～ないで — “without doing ～” Says that you do one thing without doing another. It is the nai-form of a verb plus で, in the pattern 〜しないで〜する.
- たことがある ta koto ga aru ～たことがある — “I have ～ed before” (experience) Verb た-form + ことがある says that you have had the experience of doing something at least once in your life. It follows the plain past (た) form. It is used to talk about past experiences.
- たい tai ～たい — “I want to ～” ～たい is added to the verb stem (ます form without ます) to express the speaker's wish to do something. It behaves like an い-adjective. Use it for your own wishes (or in questions to ask about the listener's).
- てある te aru ～てある — a state left as a result of someone’s action Transitive verb て-form + ある describes a state that exists because someone did it on purpose: ‘has been done (and stays that way)’. The thing becomes the subject marked with が. It is often used to describe what you see in front of you.
- ている te iru ～ている — “is ～ing” and continuing states Verb て-form + いる shows an action in progress (‘is ～ing’) or a state that continues as a result (‘is ～ed’). It is one of the most useful forms in Japanese. The polite form is ～ています.
- 動詞（どうし）の丁寧形（ていねいけい）・時制（じせい）（ます／ました／ません／ましょう） doushi no teineikei / jisei Polite verb forms — ます / ました / ません / ましょう The polite form of a verb ends in ます. It shows present/future (ます), past (ました), negative (ません), past negative (ませんでした) and invitation (ましょう). It is the basic form for talking politely.
Adjectives 2 The two adjective types and how they change.
Sentence patterns 34 Set patterns and everyday expressions.
- だ / です da / desu だ / です — “A is B” だ and です both mean “to be” and close a sentence of the type “A is B.” です is the polite form, だ is the plain (casual) form. They attach to a noun (and to a na-adjective stem).
- でも demo でも — “but / however” at the start of a sentence A conjunction placed at the start of a sentence to say something that goes against, or differs from, what came before. Very common in conversation.
- どんな donna どんな～ — “what kind of ～” A question word that asks about the kind, nature or character of a thing or person. It comes right before a noun: どんな + noun.
- どうやって douyatte どうやって～ — asking “how / by what means” A question word that asks about the method, steps or means. In どうやって + verb it asks “by what method do you do ～?”
- があります ga arimasu ～があります — “there is ～” (things) Says that a thing exists somewhere. The pattern is place に + thing が + あります. For people and animals, use います instead.
- がほしい ga hoshii ～がほしい — “I want ～” Expresses wanting a thing. The pattern is noun + がほしいです, and ほしい conjugates like an い-adjective.
- がいます ga imasu ～がいます — “there is ～” (people and animals) Says that a person or animal is somewhere. The pattern is place に + person or animal が + います. For things, use あります.
- い-adjectives i-adjectives い-adjectives — adjectives ending in ～い Adjectives that end in い. They modify a noun in their basic form, and です makes them polite. They conjugate by changing the final い.
- 一緒（いっしょ）に issho ni 一緒に～ — “together (with)” An adverb for doing something together with someone. 〜と一緒に names the partner, and 一緒に〜ましょう is used to invite.
- じゃない・ではない janai / dewa nai ～じゃない / ～ではない — the negative of だ and です The negative of です/だ after nouns and な-adjectives. じゃ is the spoken, casual form of では. The polite forms are 〜じゃないです and 〜ではありません.
- か～か ka~ka A か B — “A or B” Joins two or more options and means one of them. Put か between nouns: A か B.
- けど kedo ～けど — casual “but / although” A conjunction that follows a statement with something contrasting. It attaches to plain forms and is common in conversation. For polite situations use が or けれども.
- けれども keredo mo ～けれども — a polite “but / although” A conjunction that follows with something contrasting. It is a little more formal than けど and attaches to both plain and polite forms.
- な-adjectives na-adjectives な-adjectives — take な before a noun Adjectives that take な before a noun, such as 静か, きれい and 大切. As predicates they take です or だ.
- なる naru ～になる — “to become ～” A verb for a change of state or status. After a noun or な-adjective use に; after an い-adjective use く; then add なる.
- んです ndesu ～んです — explaining the situation Added at the end to explain a reason or situation, or to ask for an explanation. It is the spoken form of のです and attaches to plain forms.
- に行（い）く ni iku ～に行く — “go to do ～” Says you go somewhere in order to do something. Add に to the verb ます-stem (or an action noun) and follow with 行く.
- にする ni suru ～にする — deciding on / choosing something Noun + にする means ‘I will decide on / choose that one’. It is very common when ordering food and drinks or picking among options. It attaches directly to a noun.
- のです no desu ～のです — the explaining ending (casual: ～んです) のです adds an explaining or ‘here is the reason’ feeling to a sentence. It follows the plain form of a verb or adjective, and な-adjectives and nouns take な before の. In conversation it usually becomes んです.
- のが下手（のがへた） no ga heta ～のが下手だ — being bad at doing something Verb (dictionary form) + のが下手です means ‘I am bad at ～ing’. The の turns the verb into a noun, and 下手 is a な-adjective. It is used for skills and activities.
- のが上手（のがじょうず） no ga jouzu ～のが上手だ — being good at doing something Verb (dictionary form) + のが上手です means ‘is good at ～ing’. の makes the verb a noun phrase and 上手 is a な-adjective. It is a natural way to praise a skill.
- のが好（す）き no ga suki ～のが好きだ — liking to do something Verb (dictionary form) + のが好きです means ‘I like ～ing’. の turns the verb into a noun phrase, and the thing you like is marked with が. It is used for hobbies and habits.
- しかし shikashi しかし — “however” (formal connector) しかし starts a new sentence that contrasts with the previous one: ‘However, …’. It is more formal than でも and is common in writing, speeches and polite speech. It stands at the beginning of a sentence.
- そして soshite そして — “and / and also” そして adds more information to what came before: ‘and’, ‘and also’, or ‘and then’. It links sentences, and it can also link adjectives. It sits at the start of a sentence or after the て-form of an adjective.
- たり～たり tari~tari ～たり～たりする — “do things like ～ and ～” ～たり～たりする lists two (or more) actions or states as examples, meaning ‘do things like A and B’. Each verb takes the plain past た-form + り, and the sentence ends with する. It does not imply the list is complete.
- つもり tsumori ～つもりだ — “I intend to ～” Verb dictionary form + つもりです says what you plan or intend to do. It shows a personal decision that you have already made in your mind. The negative is ない form + つもりです, or 〜つもりはありません.
- あの ano あの＋名詞 — “that ～ (over there)” あの points to a thing or person that is far from both the speaker and the listener. It always comes directly before a noun. The set is この (near me), その (near you), あの (far from both), どの (which).
- そこ soko そこ — “there (near the listener)” そこ is a place word for a spot near the listener (or a place just mentioned). The set is ここ (here), そこ (there, near you), あそこ (over there), どこ (where). It works like a noun and takes particles such as に, で, へ.
- どこ doko どこ — “where” どこ is the question word for a place. Put it where the answer would go and end the sentence with か. It works with は (location), へ (destination) and で (place of an action).
- いくら ikura いくら — “how much (price)” いくら is the question word for price or amount of money. Use it in 「Aはいくらですか」 to ask how much A costs. The answer is a number plus 円 (えん), such as 500円.
- だれ dare だれ — “who” だれ is the question word for a person. Use it as 「Aはだれですか」 (Who is A?) or 「だれの＋名詞」 (whose ～). A more polite form is どなた.
- いつ itsu いつ — “when” いつ is the question word for a time or date. Use it as 「Aはいつですか」 or with a verb: いつ行きますか. Add から (from when) or まで (until when) to ask about a start or an end.
- その sono その＋名詞 — “that ～ (near you / just mentioned)” その points to a thing or person close to the listener, or to something just mentioned. It always comes right before a noun. The set is この (near me), その (near you), あの (far from both), どの (which).
- 代名詞（だいめいし）（彼（かれ）／彼女（かのじょ）／わたし など） daimeishi Pronouns — わたし／彼／彼女 Pronouns stand in for people. Common ones are わたし (I), あなた (you), 彼 (he) and 彼女 (she). They are used with particles like は and の. Japanese often leaves them out when the context is clear.
Time & sequence 8 Before, after, while, during and the order of actions.
- いつも itsumo いつも～ — “always / usually” An adverb for something that happens nearly every time, or as a habit. In affirmative sentences it describes regular behavior.
- まだ mada まだ～ — “still” / “not yet” An adverb meaning that a state or action is still continuing, or that something expected has not yet happened. Affirmative: まだ〜している (still). Negative: まだ〜ない (not yet).
- まだ～ていません mada ~te imasen まだ～ていません — “I haven’t ～ yet” Says that something expected or due has not been done as of now. It is the te-form of a verb + いません, and it answers もう〜ましたか.
- 前（まえ）に mae ni ～前に — “before ～” 前に means “before ～.” The action in the first part happens after the action in the second part. It follows a verb in dictionary form, or a noun + の (or a time word with a number).
- もう mou もう～ — “already” / “not any more” An adverb meaning “already” in affirmative sentences and “not any more” in negative ones. It is also common in the question もう〜ましたか.
- それから sore kara それから — “and then / after that” それから links two sentences in time order: ‘After that, …’. It is used to describe actions in sequence, such as a daily routine, and can also add one more item to a list. It stands at the beginning of the next sentence.
- てから te kara ～てから — “after ～ing” Verb て-form + から says that the second action happens after the first one is finished: ‘after doing A, B’. It stresses the order of two actions in one sentence. The main verb at the end gives the tense.
- とき toki ～とき — “when ～” とき means ‘when ～ / at the time of ～’. The clause before it is a noun-modifying form: plain form of verbs and い-adjectives, な-adjective + な, noun + の. It sets the time of the main clause.
Reason & cause 3 Giving reasons and explaining causes.
- どうして doushite どうして — asking “why” A question word that asks for a reason or cause. It goes at the start of a sentence or before the predicate. The answer uses 〜からです or 〜ので.
- から kara ～から — “because ～” A connecting word that states a reason. It is used as reason + から, result, with the reason first. から also means “from.”
- ので node ～ので — “because ～” (softer than から) ので gives a reason in a soft, objective way: ‘because ～, so …’. It follows the plain form of a verb or い-adjective, and な-adjectives and nouns take な: 病気なので. It is good for polite explanations.
Degree & extent 5 How much, how far, “about”, “only”, “as ～ as”.
- 一番（いちばん） ichiban 一番～ — “the most ～” An adverb meaning “the most” among three or more things. It goes before an adjective or words like 好き. The range can be shown with 〜の中で or 〜で.
- の中で[A]が一番（のなかで[A]がいちばん） no naka de [A] ga ichiban ～の中で[A]が一番… — the most ～ among a group This pattern picks out the top one within a group: ‘Among ～, A is the most …’. Name the group with 名詞＋の中で, then say 〔A〕が一番 + adjective or verb. It is used for superlatives.
- とても totemo とても — “very” とても is an adverb meaning ‘very’. It goes before an adjective (or a verb that shows feeling or degree) and raises the degree. It is the most common and neutral word for ‘very’ in everyday Japanese.
- は〜より・・・です wa ~yori... desu AはBより～です — “A is more ～ than B” This is the basic comparison pattern: A は B より adjective です means ‘A is more ～ than B’. より marks the thing you compare against. It attaches to a noun, and the predicate is an adjective.
- 程度（ていど）の副詞（ふくし）（すこし／すぐ／もっと など） teido no fukushi Adverbs of degree and manner — すこし／もっと／すぐ Adverbs go before a verb or adjective and show how much, how soon or in what way. Common N5 ones are すこし (a little), もっと (more), もう (already / more), すぐ (right away) and ゆっくり (slowly).
Guessing & hearsay 2 “It seems…”, “I heard…”, “apparently” and the like.
- だろう darou ～だろう — “probably ～” The plain-style way of guessing “probably ～.” It is the casual counterpart of でしょう and is used in monologues, with close friends, and in writing.
- でしょう deshou ～でしょう — a polite “probably ～ / right?” A polite way of guessing “probably ～” or checking “～, right?” It is the polite counterpart of だろう and is common in weather forecasts.
Requests, permission & prohibition 15 Asking, allowing and forbidding.
- ちゃいけない・じゃいけない cha ikenai / ja ikenai ～ちゃいけない / ～じゃいけない — the casual “you must not ～” The spoken, contracted form of ～てはいけない. The て of the te-form shrinks to ちゃ (and で to じゃ), giving a casual “you must not ～ / it’s not allowed.” Used with friends and in relaxed situations.
- ほうがいい hou ga ii ～たほうがいい — “you had better ～” Used to advise someone that a certain action is best. It follows the ta-form of a verb. The negative form advises against an action.
- ませんか masen ka ～ませんか — “Won’t you ～?” (invitation) A polite way to invite someone. It is the negative ます-form 〜ません plus か. It looks like a negative question but works as an invitation.
- ましょうか mashouka ～ましょうか — “Shall I / shall we ～?” Used to offer to do something yourself, or to suggest doing something together. It follows the ます-stem of a verb.
- ないでください naide kudasai ～ないでください — “please don’t ～” Asks someone not to do something. It is the nai-form of a verb plus でください, and it is a softer request than a prohibition.
- ないといけない naito ikenai ～ないといけない — “have to ～” Expresses obligation: you have to do it or there will be trouble. Drop い from the nai-form, add ないと, and follow with いけない. Common in conversation.
- なくてもいい naku temo ii ～なくてもいい — “you don’t have to ～” Says that it is not necessary to do the action. Drop い from the nai-form, add なくても, then いい.
- なくちゃ nakucha ～なくちゃ — casual “gotta ～” A casual form of しなければならない. なくては shrinks to なくちゃ. It is used with close people, and the following いけない is often dropped.
- なくてはいけない nakute wa ikenai ～なくてはいけない — “must ～ / have to ～” Expresses obligation or necessity. Drop い from the nai-form, add なくては, and follow with いけない.
- なくてはならない nakute wa naranai ～なくてはならない — a formal “must ～” A formal way to say something must be done, such as rules or duties. Drop い from the nai-form, add なくては, and follow with ならない.
- をください o kudasai ～をください — “Please give me ～” Noun + をください is the basic way to ask for something: ‘Please give me ～’. It is used in shops, restaurants and when asking people for things. Add a number or counter for quantity.
- てください te kudasai ～てください — “Please ～” Verb て-form + ください is the basic way to ask someone to do something: ‘Please ～’. It is polite enough for everyday requests and is also used for instructions. Use it with people you don't know well, classmates and customers.
- てはいけない te wa ikenai ～てはいけない — “must not ～” Verb て-form + はいけない says that something is not allowed: ‘You must not ～’. It is used for rules, signs and warnings. The polite form is ～てはいけません.
- てもいいです temo ii desu ～てもいいです — “may ～ / it’s OK to ～” Verb て-form + もいいです gives or asks for permission: ‘You may ～ / It's OK to ～’. As a question, ～てもいいですか asks ‘May I ～?’. It is very common in daily life.
- 応答（おうとう）・場面（ばめん）の表現（ひょうげん）（どうぞ など） outou / bamen no hyougen Set responses and situational phrases — どうぞ どうぞ is a polite word to offer, invite or give permission: “please / go ahead”. It is used in set phrases such as どうぞお入りください and お先にどうぞ. It does not change form and can also stand alone.
Compound verbs & suffixes 2 Endings that attach to a verb to add meaning.
- 方（かた） kata ～方（かた） — “how to ～” Attached to the stem of a verb (the ます-form without ます), it makes a noun meaning “the way of doing ～”: 読み方, 作り方, 行き方.
- すぎる sugiru ～すぎる — “too much / too ～” すぎる is added to a verb stem or an adjective stem to say something goes beyond the proper level: ‘too much’, ‘too ～’. It is usually a complaint or a warning, and it conjugates like a verb (すぎます, すぎた).
Polite & honorific language 1 Honorific and humble forms (keigo).
Useful expressions 4 Everyday patterns for wanting, inviting and giving reasons.
- たい tai 〜たい — want to do Attach たい to a verb stem to say what you want to do. It conjugates like an い-adjective.
- ほしい hoshii 〜が ほしい — want (a thing) ほしい expresses wanting a thing (a noun). Use が for the thing you want. It is an い-adjective.
- ましょう mashō 〜ましょう — let's / shall we ましょう invites someone to do something together ("let's …"). ましょうか softens it to "shall we / shall I?".
- から kara 〜から — because (reason) から after a sentence gives a reason: "because …". The reason comes first, then the result.
Everyday grammar: conditionals, giving reasons, time expressions, requests and more.
Particles 3 Small words that show each word’s job in the sentence.
- ばかり bakari ばかり — “nothing but ～ / only ～” ばかり shows that the same thing happens again and again, or that there is only that one kind of thing: ‘nothing but ～’. It often carries a critical or surprised feeling. It follows a noun or a verb て-form + いる.
- かい kai かい — a casual, friendly yes/no question ending かい is a sentence-final particle that makes a yes/no question, with a soft, friendly tone. It is typically used by men, by older people, or when speaking kindly to someone younger or close, such as a child.
- も mo 数量＋も — “as many / as much as ～” (emphasis) When も follows an amount or counter (百冊も, 二時間も), it stresses that the amount is larger than expected: “as many as ～, as long as ～.” It shows the speaker's surprise at a large quantity.
Verb forms 18 Useful verb endings and their changes.
- 意向形（いこうけい） ikou kei - volitional form Volitional form (意向形) — “let's ～ / I will ～” The volitional form is the plain form of ～ましょう. It is used to invite someone (“let's ～”) or to state your own intention (“I think I'll ～”) in casual speech.
- ことができる koto ga dekiru ～ことができる — “can ～ / be able to ～” With the dictionary form of a verb, ことができる means “can ～.” It expresses ability or possibility, and it is a bit more formal than the potential verb form (弾ける).
- られる rareru ～られる — potential form (can ～) The potential form meaning “can do ～”. Group 2 verbs add られる to the stem; group 1 verbs change the final sound to the え-row + る; する becomes できる and 来る becomes 来られる.
- させられる saserareru ～させられる — causative-passive (“be made to ～”) It combines the causative (させる) and the passive (られる): “to be made to do ～ by someone”. The person who is forced is the subject, and there is usually a feeling of reluctance.
- させる saseru ～させる — causative (“make / let someone ～”) The causative form, for making or letting someone do something. Group 1: ない-stem + せる; group 2: stem + させる; する → させる; 来る → 来させる.
- たがる tagaru ～たがる — a third person “wants to ～” The third-person version of ～たい. Add たがる to the verb stem to describe someone other than yourself wanting to do something. It is usually used as ～たがっている.
- てあげる te ageru ～てあげる — “do ～ for someone” Shows that you (or your family) do something for someone else. Add あげる to the te-form. The person who receives it is marked with に.
- てほしい te hoshii ～てほしい — “I want you to ～” Expresses what you want someone else to do. Add ほしい to the te-form. The person is marked with に. Negative: ～ないでほしい.
- ていく te iku ～ていく — “go on ～ing / from now on” Attach いく to the te-form to show an action or change continuing from now into the future, or moving away from the speaker: 勉強していく, 増えていく.
- ていた te ita ～ていた — “was ～ing” (past continuous) Te-form + いた shows an action that was in progress at a past time, or a state at that time. Politely: ～ていました.
- てくれる te kureru ～てくれる — “someone does ～ for me” Shows that someone does something for you (or your family). Add くれる to the te-form; the person who does it is the subject.
- てくる te kuru ～てくる — “go and come back / become / start to ～” Attaching くる to the te-form has several meanings: (1) go somewhere and come back, (2) a change that has been happening up to now, (3) a state or action beginning.
- てみる te miru ～てみる — “try ～ing” Add みる to the te-form to mean doing something to see what happens, or trying. It is used for deliberate actions.
- てもらう te morau ～てもらう — “have / get someone to ～” Shows that you get someone to do something for you. Add もらう to the te-form. The doer is marked with に, and you are the subject.
- ておく te oku ～ておく — “do ～ in advance” Attach おく to the te-form to do something ahead of time for later. It also means leaving something as it is.
- てしまう / ちゃう te shimau / chau ～てしまう / ～ちゃう — completion or regret Te-form + しまう expresses (1) finishing an action completely, or (2) doing something by accident or with regret. In casual speech it contracts to ちゃう / じゃう.
- てやる te yaru ～てやる — “do ～ for” (casual, to someone below) A casual version of ～てあげる. Te-form + やる is for doing something for children, younger siblings, pets or plants, i.e., those below you.
- 受身形（うけみけい） ukemi kei Passive form (受身形) — be ～ed The passive form shows that the subject receives an action from someone else: “be praised, be stepped on.” The person who acts is marked with に. It is also used when something happens to you and it bothers you.
Sentence patterns 39 Set patterns and everyday expressions.
- でも demo 名詞でも — “～ or something / how about ～?” 名詞＋でも picks one example and offers it lightly, without insisting: ‘something like ～’. It is used in suggestions and invitations such as お茶でも飲みませんか. It softens the offer.
- ではないか dewa nai ka ～ではないか — “isn’t it ～? / isn’t that so?” ではないか is a rhetorical or confirming question: ‘Isn't it ～?’. The speaker thinks it is so and looks for the listener's agreement, or points out something. It is in the plain, slightly masculine or formal style; the polite form is ではありませんか.
- が必要（がひつよう） ga hitsuyou ～が必要だ — “～ is necessary / needed” 必要 is a な-adjective meaning ‘necessary’. 名詞が必要だ says that something is needed, and 名詞には名詞が必要だ says what is needed for what. It is used for requirements, conditions and advice.
- がする ga suru ～がする — sensing a smell, sound, taste or feeling 名詞＋がする describes something you sense with your nose, ears, tongue or feelings: a smell (におい), sound (音), taste (味), or feeling (気, 感じ). The sensed thing is marked with が, and する is used in the sense of ‘there is / it comes’.
- じゃないか janai ka ～じゃないか — “isn't it?” / “let's ～, shall we?” じゃないか (casual; politely ではありませんか) has three common uses: pointing out something the speaker has just noticed (“it's ～, isn't it!”), asking for agreement, and, with the volitional form, inviting others (“let's ～”).
- かどうか ka dou ka ～かどうか — “whether (or not) ～” かどうか turns a yes/no question into a clause inside a longer sentence: “whether ～ or not.” It attaches to the plain form and is followed by words like 分からない, 調べる, 聞く or 確かめる.
- から作（つく）る kara tsukuru ～から作る — “made from ～ (raw material)” Aから作る tells what raw material A something is made from, when the material changes form in the process (grapes into wine). It differs from Aで作る, which names a material whose form stays visible.
- こと koto こと — turning a verb into a noun Added to the dictionary or ない form of a verb, こと turns the action into a noun phrase (“the act of ～ing”). This lets the action become the subject or the predicate: 趣味は写真を撮ることです.
- ことがある koto ga aru ～ことがある — “there are times when ～” With the dictionary or ない form of a verb, ことがある says that something happens sometimes, though not always. It is a different pattern from the past-form ～たことがある, which talks about experience.
- ことになる koto ni naru ～ことになる — “it has been decided that ～ / it ends up that ～” ことになる says that something has come about, or been decided, by circumstances or by others rather than by the speaker's own choice. It follows the dictionary or ない form, and is common for announcements like transfers or rules.
- ことにする koto ni suru ～ことにする — “decide to ～” ことにする expresses the speaker's own decision to do something (or not to). It follows the dictionary or ない form. In the past, ことにした tells a decision already made; in the present, ことにする states a decision at the moment of speaking.
- くする ku suru ～くする — “make it ～” (with i-adjectives) Change the final い of an i-adjective to く and add する to mean “make something ～.” The person who does it is the subject, and the thing changed takes を. It describes deliberately changing a state.
- まま mama ～まま — “as it is / left as ～” まま means that a state stays unchanged while another action or situation happens. It attaches to the past or ない form of a verb, or to a noun with の and an adjective in its plain form: 靴を履いたまま, 窓を開けたまま.
- または matawa または — “or” または is a conjunction that offers a choice between two or more options. It joins nouns or sentences and is more formal than や or か. It is common in forms, notices and instructions.
- など nado など — “and so on / things like ～” など follows one or more examples and shows that there are other similar things too. It is often used as 「A や B など」, and it can also soften what you say by treating the item as just one example.
- ながら nagara ～ながら — doing two things at once ながら connects two actions done at the same time by the same person: “do A while doing B.” Attach it to the ます-stem of a verb. The main action is the one at the end of the sentence.
- に気（き）がつく ni ki ga tsuku ～に気がつく — “notice ～ / become aware of ～” に気がつく means that you notice or realize something that you had not been aware of. The thing noticed takes に, and before a clause you use ～ことに気がつく.
- にする ni suru ～にする — “decide on ～ / make it ～” にする has two main uses. With a noun it means “choose, decide on” (お茶にします). With a na-adjective or noun describing a state, it means “make it ～” (部屋をきれいにする). The one who acts chooses or changes it.
- のに noni ～のに — “even though ～” (against expectation) Used when the result goes against what you expected. It follows the plain form (noun and na-adjective take なのに) and carries feelings of surprise, complaint or regret.
- のは〜だ nowa~da ～のは～だ — “the one that ～ is …” A pattern that pulls one part out of a sentence to highlight it. A plain-form phrase + のは + the focus + だ, giving “the one who ～ is …” or “what ～ is …”.
- さすが sasuga さすが — “as expected of ～” An expression of admiration when someone or something lives up to its reputation or your expectations. It appears as さすが + noun, or さすがだ, and is used to praise.
- し shi ～し — listing reasons or points (“and, what’s more”) Added to the plain form to list reasons or facts, with the feeling that there are more. 安いし、おいしい. It can also give a reason in place of ～から.
- それでも sore demo それでも — “even so / still” A conjunction placed at the start of a sentence: despite the previous situation, the opposite result or action still happens.
- それに sore ni それに — “besides / moreover” A conjunction that adds one more point in the same direction as the previous sentence: a good point after a good point, a bad one after a bad one.
- て / で te / de ～て / ～で — joining clauses with the te-form The te-form links clauses: actions in order (食べて、走った), a reason (風邪をひいて、休んだ), or listed features (安くて、おいしい). I-adjectives use ～くて; na-adjectives and nouns use ～で.
- てすみません te sumimasen ～てすみません — “sorry for ～ing” Te-form + すみません apologizes for causing trouble for the stated reason. Past polite: すみませんでした.
- てよかった te yokatta ～てよかった — “I’m glad I ～” Expresses gladness or relief about something that actually happened. Te-form + よかった. With nouns and adjectives: ～で, ～くて + よかった.
- と言（い）ってもいい to ittemo ii ～と言ってもいい — you could say ～ A way to state a fairly strong judgment in a gentle manner: “it is fair to say ～ / you could say ～.” It attaches to the plain form of a sentence. It is used when giving an evaluation or an opinion.
- という to iu ～という — called ～, named ～ Used to give the name of something the listener may not know: “a ～ called X.” The name goes before という and the thing it names goes after. It is common for introducing people, places, shops, dishes and works.
- ということ to iu koto ～ということ — the fact that ～, the idea of ～ Turns a whole sentence into a noun phrase: “the fact that ～ / the matter of ～”. It attaches to the plain form of a sentence. It is used with verbs like 知る, 分かる and 言う, and as the subject of a comment.
- と思（おも）う to omou ～と思う — I think that ～ States your own opinion or guess: “I think that ～.” It attaches to the plain form of a sentence. Using it softens the statement, so it is very common in conversation.
- とか～とか toka~toka ～とか～とか — things like ～ and ～ Lists examples casually: “things like A and B.” It attaches to nouns, verbs and adjectives. It is a spoken form of ～や～など and suggests that there are other items as well.
- って tte ～って — as for ～ / called ～ (casual) A casual spoken particle that picks up a topic: “as for ～” or “this thing called ～.” It replaces は, という or と言う in conversation. It is used to talk about a person or thing, or to ask about a name.
- は〜が〜は wa~ga... wa ～は～が、～は～ — contrasting two things Sets two things side by side to show a contrast: “A is ～, but B is ～.” Each topic gets は, and the clauses are joined by が meaning “but”. It is used to compare likes, habits and amounts.
- 予定（よてい）だ yotei da ～予定だ — plan to ～, be scheduled to ～ Talks about plans and schedules that are already arranged: “I plan to ～ / it is scheduled to ～.” It attaches to the dictionary form of a verb or to a noun + の. It is used for trips, appointments and events.
- ようになる you ni naru ～ようになる — come to be able to ～, begin to ～ Shows a change from not being able to do something, or not doing it, to being able to or doing it: “come to ～.” It attaches to the dictionary form or potential form of a verb. It is common for skills, habits and gradual changes.
- ようにする you ni suru ～ようにする — make an effort to ～, see to it that ～ Shows continuing effort to do something, or to make sure something does or does not happen: “try to ～ / make sure to ～.” It attaches to the dictionary form or ない-form of a verb. It is common for habits and reminders.
- ようと思（おも）う you to omou ～ようと思う — I am thinking of ～ing Tells what you are thinking of doing: “I'm thinking of ～ing / I intend to ～.” It attaches to the volitional form (〜よう / 〜おう) of a verb. It is for the speaker's own intentions, and sounds softer than a firm decision.
- ぜひ zehi ぜひ — by all means, definitely An adverb that strengthens a wish or a request: “by all means / I really want to.” It is used together with ～たい, ～てください, and ～てほしい. It expresses a strong feeling that you want something to happen.
Conditionals (if / when) 6 Saying “if”, “when” and “in case”.
- ば ba ～ば — the conditional “if ～” The ば-form states a condition: ‘if ～ (then …)’. It is made from the verb or adjective and tends to describe a natural or general result of the condition. It is a basic conditional form to learn at N4.
- 場合（ばあい）は baai wa ～場合は — “in the case of ～ / if ～” 場合は describes a possible situation or case and says what to do or what happens in it: ‘in the case that ～’. It follows a noun-modifying clause (plain form; noun + の). It is common in rules, notices and instructions.
- なら nara ～なら — “if it is the case that ～ / if ～” なら takes a topic or situation that the listener has mentioned (or that is clear from context) and gives advice, opinion or a request based on it: “if that's the case, then ～.” It follows the plain form; nouns and na-adjectives take no だ.
- たら tara ～たら — “if / when ～” A conditional made by adding ら to the ta-form. It covers both “if ～” (hypothetical) and “when ～ (has happened)”.
- ても temo ～ても — “even if ～” Shows that the result does not change even if the condition holds. Verbs: te-form + も; i-adjectives: ～くても; nouns and na-adjectives: ～でも.
- と to ～と — whenever ～, (then) ～ と links two events: when the first happens, the second naturally or inevitably follows. It attaches to the plain present form of verbs and adjectives. It is used for natural phenomena, machine operations, habits and directions.
Time & sequence 13 Before, after, while, during and the order of actions.
- 間（あいだ） aida 間 — “during ～ / while ～ / between ～” 間 (aida) means a span of time or space. It expresses “during ～” or “while ～,” and also “between A and B.” For time, it follows a noun + の or a verb (usually in a continuing form, like ～ている).
- 間（あいだ）に aida ni ～間に — “while ～ (something happens during that time)” 間に means that something happens at some point within a period while a continuing state or action lasts. The period is often shown by a ～ている form. It follows a noun-modifying clause: plain form, or noun + の.
- 後（あと）で ato de ～あとで — “after ～ / later” あとで means ‘after ～’ when it follows a past-tense verb or noun + の, and ‘later’ when it stands alone. It states that one action happens after another. Verb た-form + あとで, noun + の + あとで.
- 頃（ころ / ごろ） koro / goro 頃（ころ／ごろ）— “around (a time) / when ～” 頃 marks an approximate time. It is read ごろ after a specific time (三時ごろ) and ころ after a period or event (子どものころ). It expresses “around ～” or “back when ～.”
- 急（きゅう）に kyuu ni 急に — “suddenly” 急に is an adverb meaning “suddenly, abruptly.” It describes a change or event that happens quickly and without warning, and goes before a verb. It is used for both pleasant and unpleasant surprises.
- までに made ni までに — “by (a deadline)” までに marks a deadline: the action must be done at some point before or at that time. It follows a time word or the dictionary form of a verb. It is different from まで, which shows how long something continues.
- おきに oki ni ～おきに — “every ～ / at intervals of ～” Attached to a number or time expression, it shows something repeats at regular intervals: 十分おきに, 一日おきに.
- さっき sakki さっき — a little while ago An adverb for a short time ago, from a few minutes to a few hours. The sentence usually ends in the past tense. For polite speech, use 先ほど.
- たばかり ta bakari ～たばかり — “just ～ed” Attached to the ta-form of a verb, it shows that not much time has passed since the action. If the speaker feels it was “just now”, it may actually be days or months ago.
- たところ ta tokoro ～たところ — “have just ～ed” Attached to the ta-form of a verb, it shows the action has just ended. Often used with 今 or ちょうど.
- ているところ teiru tokoro ～ているところ — “in the middle of ～ing” Te-form + いるところ shows that an action is in progress right now. It is often paired with 今 or ちょうど.
- ところ tokoro ～ところだ — about to ～, just on the verge of ～ Shows that an action is just about to begin: “I am just about to ～.” It attaches to the dictionary form of a verb. ところ here means a point in time, and it is often used with これから, ちょうど or 今から.
- やっと yatto やっと — finally, at last An adverb meaning “at long last.” It shows that something you waited for or worked hard for finally happened. It is used with a verb that expresses completion or achievement, usually in the past.
Reason & cause 1 Giving reasons and explaining causes.
Degree & extent 7 How much, how far, “about”, “only”, “as ～ as”.
- あまり～ない amari~nai あまり～ない — “not very ～ / not much” あまり used with a negative means ‘not very ～’ or ‘not so often’. It softly denies the degree or frequency. It goes before a negative adjective or verb, and it is a gentler way of saying no than a flat negative.
- だけで dake de ～だけで — “just by ～ / with only ～” だけで means that one small thing alone is enough to bring about a result: ‘just by ～ing’. It follows a verb or noun, and the result clause shows how much that small thing achieves. It often expresses surprise or a feeling.
- なかなか～ない nakanaka~nai なかなか～ない — “not easily ～ / just won't ～” なかなか with a negative verb means that something does not happen easily, or does not happen even though you expect or wish it to. It carries a feeling of difficulty, waiting or frustration.
- の中（なか）で no naka de ～の中で — “among ～ / within ～” の中で sets a group or range and picks one member from it, usually the best, biggest or most. It is typically followed by 一番 or 最も: “among ～, X is the most ～.”
- そんなに sonna ni そんなに — “that much / so ～” An adverb for “that much / so” about a degree the listener or topic involves. With a negative, it means “not so ～”.
- より yori ～より — than ～ より marks the standard of comparison: “than ～.” It follows a noun or a clause. The basic pattern is “A は B より ～ (adjective)”, meaning A is more ～ than B.
- 全然（ぜんぜん）～ない zenzen~nai 全然～ない — not at all ～ Used with a negative verb or adjective to deny something completely: “not at all.” 全然 is an adverb placed before the predicate. It is used for verbs, adjectives and abilities.
Guessing & hearsay 18 “It seems…”, “I heard…”, “apparently” and the like.
- はずだ hazu da ～はずだ — “should be ～ / is expected to ～” はずだ expresses the speaker's confident expectation, based on facts or reasoning, that something is (or will be) the case. It attaches to the plain form of verbs and adjectives, and to nouns and na-adjectives with の / な.
- はずがない hazu ga nai ～はずがない — “there's no way ～” はずがない is the negative of はず: the speaker strongly believes that something cannot possibly be true. It uses the same connections as はずだ.
- かしら ka shira ～かしら — “I wonder ～” (feminine) かしら is a sentence-final expression meaning “I wonder if ～.” It voices a question to yourself or a soft question to a close listener. It is traditionally used by women, and men use かな instead.
- かもしれない kamo shirenai ～かもしれない — “might ～ / maybe ～” かもしれない says that something is possible, but the speaker is not sure. It attaches to the plain form of verbs and adjectives, and to nouns and na-adjectives without だ. Politely, it is かもしれません.
- かな kana ～かな — “I wonder ～” かな is a casual sentence-final expression meaning “I wonder if ～.” It voices a doubt or question to yourself, or a soft question to a close listener. Both men and women use it.
- きっと kitto きっと — “surely / certainly” きっと is an adverb that shows the speaker's strong conviction that something will happen or is so. It usually goes with ～だろう, ～でしょう, ～と思う or a plain statement about the future.
- みたいだ mitai da ～みたいだ — “seems like ～ / is like ～” みたいだ is the casual counterpart of ようだ. It has two uses: a guess based on what you see or hear (“it seems ～”), and a comparison (“it is like ～”). It attaches to the plain form, and to a noun or na-adjective without だ or な.
- みたいな mitai na ～みたいな — “～-like / such as ～” (before a noun) みたいな comes before a noun and means “like ～, ～-like.” It is the casual counterpart of ～のような, and it describes the noun by comparing it to another thing or to an example.
- みたいに mitai ni ～みたいに — “like ～” (before a verb or adjective) みたいに comes before a verb or adjective and means “in the way that ～, like ～.” It is the casual counterpart of ～のように and compares an action or a state to something else.
- に見（み）える ni mieru ～に見える — “look ～ / appear ～” に見える describes how something looks to you: its appearance gives that impression. A noun or na-adjective takes に; an i-adjective takes く (若く見える); and ～そうに見える adds the idea of “looks as if it would ～.”
- らしい rashii ～らしい — “it seems ～ / I hear ～” Used to say something based on information you heard or evidence you observed. It follows the plain form (nouns and na-adjectives drop だ). It covers both hearsay and an inference from evidence.
- そうだ sou da [1] ～そうだ — hearsay (“I hear that ～”) Passes on something heard from another person or the news. Add そうだ to the plain form. It often appears with ～によると or ～の話では.
- そうだ sou da [2] ～そうだ — appearance (“looks ～”) Says that something looks like ～ judging from its appearance. Attach そうだ to a verb stem or the stem of an i- or na-adjective. It can also mean “about to happen”, as in 雨が降りそうだ.
- そうに / そうな sou ni / sou na ～そうに / ～そうな — adverb and modifier forms of “looks ～” The adverbial そうに and the noun-modifying そうな forms of appearance そうだ: 楽しそうに遊ぶ, 眠そうな顔.
- と言（い）われている to iwarete iru ～と言われている — it is said that ～ Reports what people in general say or believe: “it is said that ～.” It attaches to the plain form of a sentence. It is used for general knowledge, tradition, legends and widely held opinions, and sounds a bit formal.
- と聞（き）いた to kiita ～と聞いた — I heard that ～ Passes on information you heard from someone: “I heard that ～.” It attaches to the plain form of a sentence. The speaker is the one who heard it, so it is used for hearsay you received personally.
- ようだ you da ～ようだ — it seems ～, it appears ～ Gives a judgment based on what the speaker has seen, heard or felt: “it seems ～.” It attaches to the plain form of verbs and adjectives, な-adjectives with な, and nouns with の. The tone is a little formal and soft.
- ように / ような you ni / you na ～ように／～ような — like ～, as ～ Compares one thing to another: “like ～ / as ～.” ような modifies a noun (花のような人), and ように modifies a verb or adjective (花のようにきれいだ). It attaches to a noun + の or to a plain-form verb.
Requests, permission & prohibition 9 Asking, allowing and forbidding.
- 必要（ひつよう）がある hitsuyou ga aru ～必要がある — “it is necessary to ～ / need to ～” Added to the dictionary form of a verb, 必要がある says that an action is necessary. It sounds more objective and a little more formal than なければならない, and is common in notices and explanations.
- な na ～な — “don't ～!” (negative command) Attaching な to the dictionary form of a verb gives a blunt negative command: “don't ～!” It is used by men or in strong, direct situations such as warnings or signs, not in polite speech.
- なければいけない nakereba ikenai ～なければいけない — “have to ～ / must ～” なければいけない says that you have to do something. It attaches to the ない form of a verb (drop い, add なければ). It is used for duties, rules and necessary things, and is a little more conversational than なければならない.
- なければならない nakereba naranai ～なければならない — “must ～ (obligation)” なければならない expresses obligation or something that is natural and necessary. It is formed like なければいけない from the ない form of a verb, but sounds a little more formal and is common in rules, writing and general statements.
- なさい nasai ～なさい — “do ～” (gentle command) ～なさい is a command used by someone in a position of authority, such as a parent, teacher or the instructions on a test paper. It attaches to the ます-stem and is softer than a bare imperative, but it is still an order and not for superiors.
- させてください sasete kudasai ～させてください — “please let me ～” The causative te-form + ください, used to ask permission for yourself to do something: 考えさせてください, 休ませてください.
- たらどう tara dou ～たらどう — “why don’t you ～?” Adding どうですか to ～たら makes a gentle suggestion or advice to someone. Politely ～たらどうですか; casually ～たらどう.
- たらいいですか tara ii desu ka ～たらいいですか — “what should I ～?” ～たら + いいですか asks for advice on what to do. It is often used with question words such as どこで, 何を, どう.
- ていただけませんか te itadakemasen ka ～ていただけませんか — “could you please ～?” (very polite) A far more polite way to ask than ～てください. Add いただけませんか to the te-form. Used with superiors and customers.
Compound verbs & suffixes 10 Endings that attach to a verb to add meaning.
- 出（だ）す dasu ～出す — “start ～ing suddenly” Verb stem + 出す means that an action suddenly begins: ‘burst into ～ / start to ～’. It is attached to the ます-stem of a verb and often fits actions like crying, laughing and raining that start without warning.
- がり gari ～がり — a person who easily feels ～ がり is a suffix attached to the stem of an adjective to make a noun meaning ‘a person who tends to feel ～’. 寒がり means someone who easily feels cold. It describes a person's tendency or character.
- がる / がっている garu / gatteiru ～がる / ～がっている — showing signs of a feeling (third person) Added to the stem of an i-adjective or na-adjective of feeling (ほしい, 怖い, 暑い, いやだ), it turns the adjective into a verb meaning “shows signs of feeling ～.” It is used for other people's feelings, not your own.
- 始（はじ）める hajimeru ～始める — begin to do ～ Attached to the ます-stem of a verb, 始める means “begin to ～.” It marks the moment an action or change starts, and is often followed by continuing action.
- にくい nikui ～にくい — “hard to ～” Added to the ます-stem of a verb, にくい means that something is hard to do. It describes the nature of an object, tool or situation that makes the action difficult. It works like an i-adjective, so it conjugates as one.
- 終（お）わる owaru ～終わる — “finish ～ing” Attached to the verb stem, it means finishing an action through to the end: やり終わる, 読み終わる, 食べ終わる.
- さ sa ～さ — turns an adjective into a noun (“-ness”) Adding さ to an i-adjective stem or na-adjective stem makes a noun for the degree of that quality: 高い → 高さ, 重い → 重さ, 寒い → 寒さ.
- 続（つづ）ける tsuzukeru ～続ける — keep on ～ing Added to a verb to show that the same action goes on without stopping: “keep ～ing.” It attaches to the stem (ます-form without ます). It is used for actions that last a long time or are repeated.
- やすい yasui ～やすい — easy to ～, tends to ～ Added to a verb to mean “easy to ～” or “apt to ～.” It attaches to the stem (ます-form without ます). The whole thing then behaves like an い-adjective. The opposite is ～にくい or ～づらい.
- づらい zurai ～づらい — hard to ～, awkward to ～ Added to a verb to mean that doing it is hard or uncomfortable: “hard to ～.” It attaches to the stem (ます-form without ます) and behaves like an い-adjective. The difficulty usually comes with physical or emotional discomfort.
Polite & honorific language 7 Honorific and humble forms (keigo).
- でございます de gozaimasu ～でございます — the very polite “to be” でございます is the very polite form of です. It is used by staff speaking to customers and in formal announcements. It attaches to a noun, and expresses ‘it is ～’ with respect to the listener.
- ございます gozaimasu ございます — the polite “there is / it is” ございます is the very polite form of あります (to exist, to have) and, after a noun, of です. It is used by shop staff, hotel staff and in formal announcements.
- いらっしゃる irassharu いらっしゃる — honorific “be / come / go” いらっしゃる is the honorific verb for いる, 来る and 行く. You use it for the actions of someone you want to show respect to, such as a teacher or a customer.
- いたします itashimasu いたします — humble “do” いたします is the humble form of します. You use it to lower your own action when serving or speaking to a customer or a superior. It often follows a noun, as in 案内いたします, or お／ご + noun.
- なさる nasaru なさる — honorific “do” なさる is the honorific verb for する. You use it for the actions of someone you respect, such as a teacher, customer or company president. The ます form is なさいます, and it often follows a noun (散歩をなさる).
- お～ください o~kudasai お～ください — polite request (honorific) A more polite and respectful way to make a request than ～てください. Take the verb stem (ます-form minus ます), add お, then ください. Common in shops, signs and announcements.
- お～になる o~ni naru お～になる — honorific form (respecting someone) An honorific (sonkeigo) form that raises the person doing the action. Use お + verb stem + になる for the actions of teachers, bosses, customers and other people you respect.
Bridging to fluency: nuanced patterns, compound verbs, guessing and hearsay, and polite language.
Particles 1 Small words that show each word’s job in the sentence.
Verb forms 1 Useful verb endings and their changes.
Sentence patterns 81 Set patterns and everyday expressions.
- ばよかった ba yokatta ～ばよかった — I should have ～, if only I had ～ Expresses regret about a past action: “I should have ～ / I wish I had ～.” It attaches to the ば-form of a verb (the negative is ～なければよかった). It looks back at what you did or did not do.
- ばかりで bakari de ～ばかりで — only ～ (and nothing else, with a negative feeling) Says that someone only does one thing and does not do what they should, or that things keep getting worse: “only ～ and (nothing else).” It attaches to the dictionary form of a verb. The tone is critical or disappointed.
- ばかりでなく bakari denaku ～ばかりでなく — not only ～ but also ～ Adds a second item to a first one: “not only ～ but also ～.” It attaches to the plain form of verbs and adjectives, to nouns directly, and to な-adjectives with な. The second half usually has も.
- だけでなく dake de naku ～だけでなく — not only ～ but also ～ Adds another item or fact to the first: “not only ～ but also ～.” It attaches to nouns, and to verbs and adjectives in the plain form. The second half often has も, さえ or まで.
- だけど dakedo だけど — but, however (casual) A conjunction placed at the start of a sentence to turn the direction: “but / however.” It repeats the previous sentence with だ and adds けど. It is a spoken, casual form of だが and しかし.
- ふりをする furi o suru ～ふりをする — pretending to ～ Means acting as if something were true when it is not. It follows the plain form of a verb, a noun + の, or an adjective (な-adjectives take な).
- 一方（いっぽう）だ ippou da ～一方だ — keeps ～ing in one direction Describes a situation that keeps changing in one direction only. It follows the dictionary form of a verb and is often used for unwelcome changes.
- 一体（いったい） ittai 一体 — what on earth ～ (emphasizing a question) An adverb placed before a question word to show surprise, irritation or strong curiosity, as in 'what on earth' or 'who on earth.'
- じゃない janai ～じゃない — isn't it ～! (surprise or confirmation) Said with a rising tone at the end of a sentence, じゃない is not a negation but shows realization, surprise, or a call for agreement. Common in casual speech.
- か何（なに）か ka nani ka ～か何か — ～ or something Added after a noun or verb to give an example loosely, as in 'something like that.' It softens the choice and sounds gentle.
- 代（か）わりに kawari ni ～代わりに — instead of ～, in return for ～ Has two uses: doing or using something else in place of the original, and giving something in return for a favor or benefit. Nouns take の; verbs and adjectives take the plain form.
- 結局（けっきょく） kekkyoku 結局 — in the end, after all An adverb meaning that after various turns or hesitation, things ended up a certain way. Placed at the start of a sentence or before the predicate. The outcome is often not the one hoped for.
- きり kiri ～きり — only ～; ever since ～ Has two uses: after a noun or quantity it means 'only,' and after a past-form verb it means 'since that one time, nothing further happened.' A negative statement often follows.
- っけ kke ～っけ — was it ～? (recalling) A casual sentence-ending used when trying to recall something half-forgotten or checking a memory. It follows the plain form (だ with nouns and な-adjectives).
- ことになっている koto ni natteiru ～ことになっている — it is the rule or plan that ～ Says that a rule, custom or plan has already been decided. It is presented as settled, not as the speaker's own will. It follows the dictionary or ない form.
- ことは～が koto wa~ga ～ことは～が — it is true that ～, but ～ Repeats the same word to say 'I admit that, but there is a drawback.' The first half concedes a fact and the second half gives the contrast.
- くせに kuse ni ～くせに — even though ～ (with reproach) Contrasts what the first part would lead one to expect with what follows, expressing blame, dissatisfaction or contempt. It follows the plain form (な-adjectives and nouns take な).
- も～ば～も mo~ba~mo A も ～ば B も ～ — both A and B Lists two matters with も … ば … も, as in 'both … and ….' The ば-form is used to line up two good points, two bad points, or opposites.
- むしろ mushiro むしろ — rather, if anything An adverb that compares two things and says 'if anything, the latter.' It is also used when reality is the opposite of what was expected or commonly believed.
- ながらも nagara mo ～ながらも — although ～ A concessive expression for two contradictory facts: it admits the first state but then states something unexpected. It attaches to a verb stem, adjectives or nouns.
- ないことはない nai koto wa nai ～ないことはない — it is not that ～ is impossible A double negative that modestly says something is not totally excluded: there is some possibility or condition. Add ことはない after the ない form.
- なんか / なんて / など nanka / nante / nado ～なんか／～なんて／～など — “things like ～” and belittling Attached to a noun (or a clause), these give an example (“things like ～”) or show that the speaker thinks lightly of it (“something like ～ is nothing”). なんて can also express surprise at a fact. なんか and なんて are casual; など is more formal.
- に反（はん）して ni hanshite ～に反して — contrary to ～ Used after nouns like expectations, forecasts and hopes to say the result was the opposite of them. It also means “going against” a rule or wish. It is a formal expression often seen in writing and news.
- に関（かん）する / に関（かん）して ni kan suru / ni kan shite ～に関する／～に関して — concerning ～ Marks the topic that something is about: “concerning, regarding.” に関する modifies a noun, and に関して modifies a verb. It is slightly more formal than について and is common in writing, reports and official talk.
- にかわって / にかわり ni kawatte / ni kawari ～にかわって／～にかわり — on behalf of / in place of ～ Means that someone takes the place of another person or thing: “on behalf of, in place of.” It follows a noun, usually a person. にかわり is the more formal, written form.
- に慣（な）れる ni nareru ～に慣れる — get used to ～ Means that through repeated experience something no longer feels strange or hard: “to get used to ～.” It follows a noun or a verb dictionary form plus の/こと. The target is marked with に.
- において / における ni oite / ni okeru ～において／～における — in / at ～ (formal) A formal way to say that something takes place at a place, time or field: “in, at.” において modifies a verb (like で), and における modifies a noun (like での). Common in writing, speeches and announcements.
- にしたがって ni shitagatte ～にしたがって — as ～ changes / in accordance with ～ Has two uses. After a verb dictionary form it means “as one thing changes, another changes along with it.” After a noun like instructions or rules it means “in accordance with, following.”
- にしては ni shite wa ～にしては — for a ～ / considering that it is ～ Compares reality with what you would normally expect from a given standard: “for a ～, (surprisingly) ～.” The second half often shows a result different from expectation, either better or worse.
- に対（たい）して ni taishite ～に対して — toward ～ / in contrast to ～ Has two main uses. It marks the person or thing an action or feeling is directed at (“toward, to”), and it contrasts two things (“whereas, in contrast to”). It follows nouns, and for contrast it can follow a clause with の.
- にとって ni totte ～にとって — for ～ / from the standpoint of ～ Shows from whose standpoint a judgment or evaluation is made: “for ～.” It follows a person or group, and the second half is a judgment such as important, difficult or necessary.
- について ni tsuite ～について — about ～ / concerning ～ Marks the topic of speaking, thinking, researching or asking: “about ～.” It follows a noun and goes with verbs like 話す, 考える, 調べる, 聞く and 書く. The most ordinary word for “about.”
- を中心（ちゅうしん）に o chuushin ni ～を中心に — centered on ～ Shows that something spreads, happens or is organized with ～ as its center or main part: “centered on, mainly.” It follows a noun, and the second half is an action or state that extends around that center.
- をはじめ o hajime ～をはじめ — starting with ～ / ～ and others Gives one typical or leading example and implies that many others are included too: “starting with ～, (and others).” It follows a noun, and the second half talks about the whole group. It is a slightly formal expression.
- を込（こ）めて o komete ～を込めて — putting ～ (feeling) into it Shows that an action is done with a feeling or wish put into it: “with all one’s heart, filled with ～.” It follows nouns of feeling such as 心, 気持ち, 愛 and 願い. 込める means to put something into it.
- を通（つう）じて / を通（とお）して o tsuujite / o tooshite ～を通じて／～を通して — through ～ / throughout ～ Has two uses. It means “through, by means of” a person, medium or experience, and “throughout” a period of time or a range. It follows a noun. 通じて and 通して are almost interchangeable in meaning.
- さらに sara ni さらに — furthermore / even more An adverb with two uses. It adds a further thing to what was said (“furthermore, on top of that”), and it shows a degree rising even higher (“even more”). It is somewhat formal and common in writing and speeches.
- さて sate さて — now then / well then A conjunction or filler used to change the topic or move to the next action: “now then, well then.” It marks a turning point in a speech, a letter or a conversation. Often used when starting a task or the main subject.
- しかない shikanai ～しかない — have no choice but to ～ Says that there is no other way and only one option remains: “have no choice but to ～.” It follows a verb dictionary form. The speaker accepts the situation or firmly decides on that one course.
- それとも soretomo それとも — or (else) A conjunction used in a question to offer two or more choices and ask which: “or?” It places an alternative after the first question. The answer is one of the options.
- すなわち sunawachi すなわち — “namely / that is to say” A formal connecting word that restates or defines the previous item in other words: “namely, that is.” It comes right after a noun or clause and is followed by the equivalent expression. Mostly used in writing and formal speech.
- たものだ ta mono da ～たものだ — nostalgic “used to ～” Verb ta-form + ものだ recalls a habit or a scene of the past with a feeling of nostalgia: “I used to ～.” Often paired with よく, 昔, 子どもの頃. It is used only for things that no longer happen.
- 確（たし）かに tashika ni 確かに — “certainly / admittedly” 確かに is an adverb meaning “certainly, indeed.” It confirms that something is true, or admits a fact before adding a contrasting point with が or けれど: “Admittedly ～, but ….” It is common in both speech and writing.
- 例（たと）えば tatoeba 例えば — “for example” 例えば introduces a concrete example of what was just said. It is placed before the example, which is usually a noun or a short phrase. Used in both spoken and written Japanese.
- てばかりいる te bakari iru ～てばかりいる — “do nothing but ～” Verb te-form + ばかりいる means the same action goes on and on, “doing nothing but ～ / always ～ing.” It often expresses the speaker's criticism or worry about the person. The action is done again and again.
- てしょうがない・てしかたがない te shou ga nai/te shikata ga nai ～てしょうがない／～てしかたがない — “can't help ～ / unbearably ～” Te-form + しょうがない / しかたがない shows a feeling or physical sensation so strong that the speaker cannot control it: “I'm dying to ～, it's unbearably ～.” It goes with words for feelings and sensations such as たい, 痛い, 気になる.
- て済（す）む te sumu ～て済む — “get by with ～ / manage with just ～” 済む means “to be finished, to be settled.” Used after a noun with で, or a negative te-form (～なくて済む), it says that a problem was solved with a small effort or without the unpleasant action. The tone is relieved.
- ている場合（ばあい）じゃない teiru baai janai ～ている場合じゃない — “this is no time for ～ing” Verb te-iru + 場合じゃない means “this is not a situation in which you can afford to be ～ing.” It warns oneself or others that the situation is urgent and they should do something else. It is a strong, direct expression.
- ても始（はじ）まらない temo hajimaranai ～ても始まらない — “no use ～ing” Verb te-form + も + 始まらない says that doing ～ will not lead to any progress or solution: “it's no use ～ing.” It is used for regrets, worrying, or waiting that does not change anything, and often suggests taking action instead.
- てもしょうがない / てもしかたがない temo shou ga nai / temo shikata ga nai ～てもしょうがない／～てもしかたがない — “no use ～ing” Verb te-form + も + しょうがない / しかたがない means “even if you do ～, there is nothing to be gained; it's pointless.” It is used to accept something that cannot be changed, or to tell oneself or others to stop dwelling on it.
- と言（い）えば to ieba と言えば — “speaking of ～” A word or phrase + と言えば picks up a topic and says what comes to mind about it: “speaking of ～.” The speaker names a typical thing, a famous example, or a related topic. It is used to introduce a topic, often from the conversation.
- といい / たらいい to ii / tara ii ～といい／～たらいい — “I hope ～ / you should ～” Verb + といい / たらいい has two main uses. Speaking about something outside your control, it expresses a hope (“I hope ～”). When talking to someone about what they should do, it gives advice (“you should ～”).
- といっても to ittemo といっても — “although I say ～ / that said” Plain form + といっても first states a claim, then qualifies it by saying the actual level is smaller or lower than the listener may imagine: “although I say ～, in fact ….” The speaker corrects a possible wrong impression.
- と言（い）うと to iu to と言うと — “speaking of ～ / if you say ～” Noun + と言うと takes up a topic and says what it makes the speaker think of or what usually comes to mind: “speaking of ～.” It is very close to と言えば. It can also ask for clarification: “if you mean ～.”
- というより to iu yori というより — “rather than ～ / more like …” Plain form / noun + というより means “rather than saying ～, it is more accurate to say ….” The speaker corrects or refines the first description with a more suitable one. The second half is the speaker's real view.
- と共（とも）に to tomo ni と共に — “together with ～ / along with ～” と共に has two main uses. After a person or thing it means “together with ～.” After a change or event it means “along with ～; as ～ happens, … also happens.” It is somewhat formal and common in writing.
- ところで tokoro de ところで — “by the way” ところで is a conjunction used at the start of a sentence to change the topic: “by the way.” It moves from the current subject to a new one, often a question. It is used in conversation, emails and speeches.
- ところが tokoro ga ところが — “however / but then” ところが is a conjunction placed after a sentence that describes a plan, expectation or assumption. It introduces a result that turned out differently from what was expected: “but then, however.” It describes past events.
- とおりに toori ni とおりに — “just as ～ / in the way ～” Verb dictionary / ta-form, or noun の + とおりに means “just as ～, in the same way as ～.” The action follows exactly what someone said, taught, or wrote. It is used with words of instruction and models.
- として toshite として — “as ～ (a role or status)” Noun + として shows the role, position, qualification or status in which someone does something, or something is regarded: “as a ～.” It can be used for people, things, and works.
- とは限（かぎ）らない towa kagiranai とは限らない — “not necessarily ～” Plain form + とは限らない means “it is not always the case that ～; not necessarily ～.” It denies a general belief, saying there are exceptions. It is often used with 必ずしも or いつも.
- つい tsui つい — “unintentionally / without meaning to” つい is an adverb placed before a verb to show that the action happened without the speaker's intention, often against their own will or better judgment. It is often followed by ～てしまう and has a regretful tone.
- ついでに tsuide ni ついでに — “while at it / on the same occasion” Verb dictionary / ta-form, or noun の + ついでに means “taking the opportunity of doing ～, I also do another thing.” The main action is the first one, and the second action is a small extra done at the same time and place.
- つまり tsumari つまり — “in other words / that is” つまり is a conjunction that restates the previous statement in simpler words or draws a conclusion: “in other words, that is.” It connects an explanation or a summary. It is used in conversation and in writing.
- つもりだった tsumori datta ～つもりだった — “I had intended to ～ (but…)” Past form of ～つもりだ. It says what you had planned or believed at some past point, usually followed by a result that went differently. It attaches to the dictionary form (plan) or the ta-form (a belief about what you did).
- つもりで tsumori de ～つもりで — “with the intention of ～ / as if ～” Shows the intention or mindset with which someone does an action. It attaches to a verb dictionary form or noun + の, and the main clause says what they do with that intention. It can also mean “acting as if ～ (is the case)”.
- 上（うえ）に ue ni ～上に — “in addition to ～ / on top of that” Adds one more fact to what was said first: “not only A, but also B.” It attaches to the plain form of a verb or adjective, or noun + の / な-adjective + な. A and B are usually both good or both bad.
- は別（べつ）として wa betsu toshite ～は別として — “aside from ～ / setting ～ aside” Puts one thing aside as a separate matter and talks about the rest. It follows a noun (or a noun-like phrase) and then the main point is stated. Used for “set X aside, then Y”, or “X may be different, but Y is …”.
- はもちろん wa mochiron ～はもちろん — “not to mention ～ / of course ～” Says that A is obvious, and goes on to add B, which is not so obvious: “A of course, and B too.” It follows a noun, and B is often marked with も. Used to stress how wide something extends.
- は～で有名（は～でゆうめい） wa~de yuumei AはBで有名だ — “A is famous for B” Says that something or someone is well known because of a particular feature. A is the place, person or shop, and B (with で) is the thing it is known for. Often used when introducing places and food.
- わけではない wake dewa nai ～わけではない — “it doesn’t mean ～ / not necessarily” Partly denies a conclusion that others might draw: “it’s not that ～.” It attaches to the plain form of a verb or adjective (な-adj + な, noun + である/の). Used to avoid a misunderstanding or soften a statement.
- 割（わり）に wari ni ～割に — “considering ～ / for ～” Compares a result with what you would normally expect from a standard: “considering A, B is (surprisingly) …”. It attaches to a plain-form verb or adjective (な-adj + な), or noun + の. The result can be better or worse than expected.
- わざと wazato わざと — “on purpose / deliberately” An adverb meaning that someone does something deliberately, knowing what the result will be. It goes right before a verb and often implies the person had a reason such as teasing or revenge. The opposite idea is うっかり (by mistake).
- わざわざ wazawaza わざわざ — “go to the trouble of ～ / specially” An adverb that says someone took extra trouble, time or effort to do something that was not strictly necessary. Often used to thank someone (わざわざありがとう) or to say something is worth the effort.
- ようがない you ga nai ～ようがない — “there’s no way to ～” Says that you have no means or method of doing something, even if you want to. It attaches to the masu-stem of a verb. Used when the cause is lack of information, tools or conditions, not lack of will.
- ようとしない you to shinai ～ようとしない — “won’t even try to ～” Describes someone who does not make any attempt to do something, usually with some criticism or frustration. It attaches to the volitional form (〜よう / 〜おう) of a verb + としない. Mostly used for a third person.
- ようとする you to suru ～ようとする — “try to ～ / be about to ～” Has two meanings: making an effort to do something, and being at the point of starting an action. It attaches to the volitional form of a verb + とする. With a time clause (ようとした時), it means “just as I was about to ～”.
- ずにはいられない zuni wa irarenai ～ずにはいられない — “can’t help but ～” Describes an action you cannot stop yourself from doing because of strong feeling or impulse. It attaches to the ない-form with ない replaced by ず (する → せず). The same meaning is ～ないではいられない.
- ずつ zutsu ～ずつ — “～ each / ～ at a time” Attaches to an amount or number and shows that the same quantity applies to each person, item or time. Also used for gradual progress (少しずつ). It follows a quantity word and is placed before a verb.
- せっかく sekkaku せっかく — “with great effort / a rare chance” An adverb that says the speaker put effort into something, or that the chance is rare and precious. It often leads to a regret (せっかく〜のに) or an encouragement to use the chance (せっかくだから〜). Also appears as せっかくの＋noun.
- どころか dokoro ka ～どころか — “far from ～ / let alone ～” Strongly denies what the listener expects (A) and gives something quite different or more extreme (B). Two uses: “far from A, rather the opposite B”, and “not even A, much less B”. It attaches to the plain form (な-adj: な / noun: without だ).
Conditionals (if / when) 11 Saying “if”, “when” and “in case”.
- ば～のに ba~noni ～ば～のに — if only ～, then ～ (regret) Expresses regret or dissatisfaction about a situation that did not turn out as hoped: “if only ～, I could ～.” The first half is the ば-form condition, and the second half ends with のに. It is used for the present and the past.
- どんなに～ても donna ni~temo どんなに～ても — no matter how ～ Says that the result stays the same however far the degree goes: “no matter how ～.” どんなに is followed by the て-form of a verb or adjective + も. The second half states something that does not change.
- いくら～ても ikura~temo いくら～ても — no matter how much ～ Means that however great the degree, amount or number of times, the result or feeling does not change. It combines いくら with the ても／でも form.
- もしも〜たら moshimo~tara もしも～たら — if ever ～ (hypothetical) A stronger hypothetical than もし～たら. It is used for things that are unlikely to happen, imagined situations, or worst cases.
- ないと naito ～ないと — if you don't ～, then ～ (so you must ～) Means 'if you don't ～, something bad will happen' and shows that one must do it. Add と to the ない form. The second half gives the consequence or the needed action.
- にしても ni shite mo ～にしても — even if ～ / even granting ～ Accepts a condition or situation for the sake of argument, and then says that even so, the following still holds: “even if ～, (still ～).” The latter half often gives advice, a request or a criticism.
- さえ～ば sae~ba ～さえ～ば — if only ～ / as long as ～ Says that one condition alone is enough for the result: “if only ～, then ～; as long as ～.” さえ marks the one key element, and the verb or adjective ends in the ば-form. The second half is a result that follows once that condition is met.
- たとえ～ても tatoe~temo たとえ～ても — “even if ～” たとえ is placed before a ～ても clause to strengthen “even if ～.” You suppose an extreme or unfavorable condition and say that the result will not change. The speaker often expresses strong will, belief or judgment.
- たって tatte ～たって — casual “even if ～” The spoken version of ても. Plain past form of the verb + て (たって / だって) means “even if ～ / no matter how much ～.” It is used in casual talk, often with a tone of giving up or complaining.
- とすれば・としたら・とすると to sureba / to shitara / to suru to とすれば／としたら／とすると — “supposing ～ / if ～” Plain form + とすれば / としたら / とすると supposes something as true and thinks about what follows: “if we suppose ～.” The condition may not be real. The second half is a judgment, question or prediction based on that assumption.
- かぎり kagiri ～かぎり — “as long as ～ / as far as ～” Sets a limit or range: “as long as the condition holds” or “within what I know/can do.” It attaches to the plain form of a verb or adjective (な-adj + な / である, noun + の). The main clause is usually a stable result.
Time & sequence 20 Before, after, while, during and the order of actions.
- ぶりに buri ni ～ぶりに — for the first time in ～ (a period) Shows that something happened again after a certain length of time: “for the first time in ten years.” It attaches to a word for a period of time (十年, 三年, 一週間). It expresses a feeling of “after so long.”
- 中（ちゅう） chuu / juu ～中 (ちゅう／じゅう) — during ～, within ～ The kanji 中 has two readings with different meanings. ちゅう means “in the middle of / during” (会議中), and じゅう means “throughout / within the whole of” (今日中). It attaches to nouns of time and activity.
- ふと futo ふと — suddenly, on an impulse An adverb for doing or noticing something suddenly, with no particular reason or plan. It is followed by actions of noticing, recalling, or glancing.
- ごとに goto ni ～ごとに — every ～, at each ～ Shows that the same thing repeats at each interval or unit. It follows a noun of time, place or unit, or the dictionary form of a verb.
- 一度（いちど）に ichido ni 一度に — all at once An adverbial phrase meaning to do or have many things at the same moment or in a single go. It suits large amounts or simultaneous events.
- から〜にかけて kara~ni kakete ～から～にかけて — from ～ through ～ Shows a broad span of time or space by roughly giving its start and end. It is used when the boundaries are not sharp. It follows nouns.
- にかけて ni kakete ～から～にかけて — spanning from ～ to ～ Shows a time or place range that stretches across two points, in the pattern A から B にかけて. The edges are loose, not exact. It can also be used with just B, as in “toward the end of ～.”
- につれて ni tsurete ～につれて — as ～ progresses, ～ changes Shows that as one change goes on, another change goes along with it: “as, along with.” Both halves express change. The first half is a gradual change in progress, and the second shows the resulting change.
- 際（さい）に sai ni ～際に — at the time of ～ / when ～ A formal way to say “when, on the occasion of ～.” It follows a verb dictionary form or ta-form, or a noun + の. It is typical of announcements, notices and polite requests.
- 最中（さいちゅう）に saichuu ni ～最中に — right in the middle of ～ Describes something unexpected happening right while an action or event is in full swing: “in the middle of ～.” It follows a noun + の or a verb in the ている form, and the second half is usually an interruption or trouble.
- しばらく shibaraku しばらく — for a while An adverb for a period of time whose length is not exact. It can mean a short while (“please wait a moment”) or a fairly long time (“I haven't seen you for a while”). The context shows how long.
- すでに sude ni すでに — already A formal adverb meaning “already,” showing that something has been completed or has come to be earlier than expected or before a reference time. It is common in writing, news and reports, and usually goes with a past or ている form.
- たとたん ta totan ～たとたん — “the moment ～” Verb ta-form + とたん(に) means “the very moment A happened, B happened.” B is an unexpected or sudden event that the speaker did not control. It is used for past events.
- たびに tabi ni ～たびに — “every time ～” Verb dictionary form or noun + の + たびに means “every time A happens, B also happens.” B is a reaction, feeling or change that occurs each time. It is used for repeated, regular occasions.
- てはじめて te hajimete ～てはじめて — “only after ～ing” Verb te-form + はじめて means that a realization or a new situation arises only after the first action takes place: “not until ～.” It is often used with verbs like 分かる, 気づく, 知る for a new discovery.
- てからでないと te kara de nai to ～てからでないと — “not unless ～ first” Verb te-form + からでないと means “unless you do ～ first, you cannot do the next thing.” The first action is a required condition. It is followed by a negative or impossible expression such as できない, 使えません.
- 途中（とちゅう）で/途中（とちゅう）に tochuu de / tochuu ni 途中で／途中に — “on the way / partway through” 途中 means “the middle of a journey or process.” Verb dictionary form / noun の + 途中で says that something else happened while on the way or partway through an action. It describes a break or interruption.
- ついに tsui ni ついに — “finally / in the end” ついに is an adverb that shows a result reached after a long time or much effort: “finally.” With a positive verb it conveys a long-awaited result. With a negative verb it means “in the end ... did not happen.”
- うちに uchi ni ～うちに — “while ～ / before it changes” Means “while a state lasts, (do something) before it changes.” The main clause is an action you want or need to do during that time. It attaches to a plain-form verb or adjective, or noun + の.
- 上（うえ）で ue de ～上で — “after ～ing / upon ～” A formal way to say “after doing ～ (carefully), then ～.” It attaches to a verb ta-form or noun + の, and the main clause is the next step taken on that basis. Common in business, contracts and polite requests.
Reason & cause 12 Giving reasons and explaining causes.
- 結果（けっか） kekka ～結果 — as a result of ～ Shows that something occurred as the result of an action or process. It follows the past form of a verb or a noun + の, and the main clause gives the outcome or decision.
- ことから koto kara ～ことから — from the fact that ～ States a fact as the basis or origin from which a judgment, name or result arose. Put こと after a plain form and add から. It is rather formal.
- なぜなら nazenara なぜなら — the reason is that ～ A conjunction that begins a sentence giving the reason for what was just said. It is used in the pattern “statement. なぜなら、reason＋からだ／からです.” It is somewhat formal and common in speeches and writing.
- には ni wa ～には — in order to ～ After a verb dictionary form, には means “in order to do ～, (it is necessary / important ～).” It states a purpose, and the second half gives what is needed, important or effective. It cannot be followed by an intention or a command.
- によって / による ni yotte / ni yoru ～によって／～による — by, depending on, due to Noun + によって (modifying a noun: による) has three main uses: the agent in a passive sentence (“written by ～”), a cause (“due to ～”), and a variable factor (“depending on ～”). It is more formal than に or で.
- おかげで okage de ～おかげで — thanks to ～ Gives the cause of a good result, with a feeling of gratitude: “thanks to ～.” It follows a noun + の or a plain-form clause. The result is something favorable that has already happened.
- せいで sei de ～せいで — because of ～ (blame) States the cause of a bad result, often with a feeling of blame: “because of ～, (something bad happened).” It follows a noun + の or a plain-form clause. The opposite of おかげで.
- そのために sono tame ni そのために — for that purpose / because of that A conjunction that begins a sentence and points back to the previous sentence. It can mean “for that purpose” (a goal) or “because of that” (a cause). Most often it is the purpose use, as in 医者になりたい。そのために、〜.
- ために tame ni ために — “for the sake of ～ / because of ～” ために has two uses. It shows a purpose (“in order to ～, for the sake of ～”) and a cause (“because of ～”). Which meaning applies depends on what comes before it and what the sentence is about.
- てはいけないから te wa ikenai kara ～てはいけないから — “because we mustn't ～” Verb te-form + はいけない + から gives a reason based on a prohibition: “because I/we must not ～.” The speaker explains an action taken in order to avoid something bad. The second half is what to do to avoid it.
- というのは to iu nowa というのは — “the reason is ～ / ～ means …” というのは has two uses. It picks up what was just said and explains the reason (“the reason is that ～”), and it introduces the meaning or definition of a word (“～ means …”). In both cases it follows the topic.
- ように you ni ～ように — “so that ～ / in order that ～” Shows the purpose of an action: you do the main action so that a desired state happens (or an undesired one does not). It attaches to the dictionary form or ない-form of a verb, often a potential or non-volitional verb, then the action follows.
Degree & extent 19 How much, how far, “about”, “only”, “as ～ as”.
- あまり amari あまりの～に — so ～ that ～ Shows that something was so extreme that it caused a result: “so ～ that ～.” It attaches to a noun made from an adjective (暑さ, うれしさ), in the form あまりの＋N＋に. The result is an emotion, a reaction or a physical effect.
- あまりにも amari ni mo あまりにも — far too ～, excessively An adverb meaning “far too much / excessively.” It goes before an adjective or verb to show that the degree went past what is acceptable. The result is usually a problem or a strong feeling.
- ば～ほど ba~hodo ～ば～ほど — the more ～, the more ～ Shows that as one thing increases, another increases along with it: “the more ～, the more ～.” The same word is repeated: first in the ば-form, then in the dictionary form + ほど. It works for verbs and adjectives.
- 別（べつ）に～ない betsu ni~nai 別に～ない — not particularly ～ Used with a negative to say that something is not special or that there is nothing in particular: “not particularly.” 別に is an adverb placed before the negative predicate. It often sounds casual or even indifferent.
- だけ dake だけ — only, just; as much as ～ だけ marks a limit: “only, just.” It can also show the full extent of something: “as much as you ～.” It attaches to nouns and to verbs and adjectives in the plain form (好きなだけ, 必要なだけ).
- どうしても doushitemo どうしても — no matter what, absolutely An adverb that stresses strong will or impossibility: “no matter what.” With a wish (～たい), it means “I absolutely want to.” With a negative (～ない), it means “I just can't, however I try.”
- ほど hodo ～ほど — to the extent of ～ Shows how far a condition goes by giving an example of the extent. In 'tired to death' the exaggeration conveys a high degree. It follows the plain form of a verb or adjective, or a noun.
- ほど～ない hodo~nai A ほど～ない — not as ～ as A Says that something does not reach the level of a standard of comparison. 'A は B ほど ～ない' means A is less ～ than B. The predicate must be negative.
- 決（けっ）して～ない kesshite~nai 決して～ない — never ～ An adverbial phrase for firm denial or resolve. 決して is always paired with a negative and means 'absolutely not.' It is used for resolutions, promises and firm statements.
- くらい / ぐらい kurai / gurai くらい／ぐらい — about ～, to the extent of ～ Has two uses: an approximate quantity, and showing the degree of a state through an example. It follows nouns, numbers, and the plain form of verbs and adjectives. ぐらい is the same as くらい.
- めったに～ない metta ni~nai めったに～ない — rarely ～ Says that something almost never happens or is very infrequent. It is always used with a negative. A negative verb or potential form follows めったに.
- なかなか nakanaka なかなか — quite / (not) easily An adverb with two uses. With a positive word it means “quite, considerably, better than expected.” With a negative verb (なかなか〜ない) it means “not easily, takes a long time to happen.”
- なるべく naru beku なるべく — as much as possible An adverb meaning “as much as possible, if at all possible.” It goes before a verb or adjective and shows that the speaker will try to do something, or asks someone else to try. It does not mean it will always be done.
- に比（くら）べて ni kurabete ～に比べて — compared with ～ Sets one thing beside another as a standard of comparison: “compared with ～.” The noun after に is the standard, and the main clause describes the thing being judged. It can be used for people, places, times and so on.
- さえ sae ～さえ — even ～ Takes an extreme or easy example to imply that everything else is naturally so: “even ～.” Used for something surprising or extreme, with a negative or an affirmative result. It replaces を, が or は, and stacks with other particles.
- せいぜい seizei せいぜい — at most / at best An adverb meaning “at most, at best,” with a feeling that the amount is small. It goes with numbers and amounts, and shows the upper limit of what is expected. It is also used for “as much as one can” in the meaning of try your best.
- 数量（すうりょう） + は suuryou + wa 数量＋は — “at least (amount)” When the particle は follows an amount (time, number, quantity), it means “at least that much.” The speaker feels the actual amount is that or more. It is usually followed by verbs like かかる, ある, 入る.
- とても～ない totemo~nai とても～ない — “can't possibly ～” とても followed by a negative expression (usually the potential negative) means “absolutely cannot ～ / no way.” It strongly says that something is far beyond one's ability or reach. Typical endings are できない, 買えない, 無理だ.
- よりも yorimo ～よりも — “more than ～ / rather than ～” Gives the standard of comparison: “more than ～.” より marks what is compared against, and も adds emphasis. It follows a noun or a plain-form phrase, and the main clause often has ほう or a comparative idea. Slightly more emphatic than plain より.
Guessing & hearsay 15 “It seems…”, “I heard…”, “apparently” and the like.
- まるで maru de まるで — just like ～, as if ～ An adverb for likening something to another thing that it is not. It appears as まるで～のようだ, まるで～みたいだ, or まるで～かのようだ.
- まさか masaka まさか — no way, surely not An adverb expressing surprise at, or strong doubt about, something thought impossible. Typical forms are まさか～とは思わなかった and まさか～ないだろう.
- もしかしたら moshika shitara もしかしたら — perhaps, possibly An adverb for a guess that something may be the case, even if the chance is low. It is often paired with ～かもしれない at the end.
- んだって ndatte ～んだって — “I hear that ～” (casual) A casual way to pass on something you heard from someone else. It is the spoken equivalent of ～そうだ (hearsay). It follows the plain form and is used between friends and family.
- に違（ちが）いない ni chigai nai ～に違いない — must be ～ / no doubt Expresses the speaker’s strong conviction, based on some grounds, that something is so: “it must be ～, there is no doubt.” It is for a judgment, not for something directly seen, and is common in writing and serious speech.
- によると /によれば ni yoru to/ni yoreba ～によると／～によれば — according to ～ Shows the source of information that you are passing on: “according to ～.” It follows a noun like a newspaper, forecast or person, and the sentence ends with a hearsay or inference form such as そうだ, ということだ or らしい.
- のでしょうか no deshou ka ～のでしょうか — “I wonder ～” (polite question) A polite, softened way to ask a question or wonder about something. It adds a questioning tone to the explanatory のだ. It fits asking for an explanation or advice, or wondering aloud about a reason.
- そうもない /そうにない sou mo nai /sou ni nai ～そうにない／～そうもない — doesn't look likely to ～ Says that from what you see, it does not seem likely that something will happen: “doesn't look like it will ～.” It attaches to the stem of a verb, and the speaker judges from the situation. A negative of ～そうだ.
- ということだ to iu koto da ということだ — “it means ～ / I hear ～” Plain form + ということだ has two uses. It explains the meaning or conclusion of a situation (“that means ～”), and it passes on information heard from someone else (“I hear that ～”). The context shows which one is meant.
- とみえる / とみえて to mieru / to miete とみえる／とみえて — “it appears that ～” Plain form + とみえる means “it appears that ～,” a judgment made from visible evidence. The speaker looks at a sign (a light on, a wet road) and guesses the cause. とみえて connects this guess to a following result.
- わけだ wake da ～わけだ — “so that’s why ～ / no wonder ～” Used to draw a natural conclusion from facts or a reason: “so that is why ～.” It attaches to the plain form of a verb or adjective (な-adj + な, noun + という). Often paired with 道理で (no wonder) or それで.
- わけがない wake ga nai ～わけがない — “there’s no way ～” Strongly says that something cannot be true, based on the speaker’s judgment: “there’s no way ～.” It attaches to the plain form of a verb or adjective (な-adj + な, noun + の). It is emotional and used mostly in speech.
- ような気（き）がする you na ki ga suru ～ような気がする — “I have a feeling that ～” Expresses a vague feeling or hunch that you cannot fully support: “I feel as if ～.” It attaches to the plain form of a verb or adjective (な-adj + な, noun + の). It softens a statement and is common in speech.
- ように見（み）える you ni mieru ～ように見える — “looks like ～ / seems ～” Describes how something appears to the eye, either as a comparison (looks like a sheep) or as an impression (looks tired). It attaches to a plain-form verb or adjective (な-adj + な), or noun + の. It is based on appearance, not on hearsay.
- にきまっている ni kimatte iru ～に決まっている — “surely ～ / it’s obvious that ～” Expresses the speaker’s strong belief that something is certainly true, because it is obvious from the situation. It attaches to the plain form of a verb or adjective (な-adj and noun without だ). Casual in tone, often with a confident or impatient feeling.
Requests, permission & prohibition 8 Asking, allowing and forbidding.
- ばいい ba ii ～ばいい — you just have to ～, it is fine to just ～ Gives advice or says that one action is enough: “just ～ and it's fine / you should ～.” It attaches to the ば-form of a verb. It is used for suggestions, instructions, and giving someone relief by showing a simple way.
- べきだ beki da ～べきだ — should ～, ought to ～ Says that something is the right thing to do by common sense or morals: “should / ought to.” It attaches to the dictionary form of a verb. It is stronger than ～たほうがいい and is used for obligations, rules and strong advice.
- べきではない beki dewa nai ～べきではない — should not ～ The negative of ～べきだ. It says that something should not be done by common sense or morals: “should not / ought not to.” It attaches to the dictionary form of a verb. It is used for warnings, rules and moral judgments.
- こと koto ～こと — must ～ (written rule or instruction) Used at the end of a sentence after the dictionary or ない form to state a rule, notice or instruction: ～すること, ～しないこと. It is written-style and close to a command.
- ことはない koto wa nai ～ことはない — there is no need to ～ Means 'you don't need to ～' and is used to reassure or encourage someone. It follows the dictionary form of a verb.
- てごらん te goran ～てごらん — gentle “try ～ing” Verb te-form + ごらん is a soft way to tell someone to try or look at something: “try ～ing.” It is used by a person speaking to a child or someone younger or closer, in a kind tone. It is not used toward superiors.
- ても構（かま）わない temo kamawanai ～ても構わない — “I don't mind if ～ / it's all right to ～” Verb te-form + も + 構わない gives permission or says a condition does not matter: “it's fine to ～ / I don't mind if ～.” It is a polite way to allow something, and also to say that a worse situation is acceptable.
- わけにはいかない wake niwa ikanai ～わけにはいかない — “can’t (afford to) ～” Says you cannot do something because of social duty, common sense or circumstances, even if you might want to. It attaches to the dictionary form of a verb (or ない-form for the opposite: ないわけにはいかない). Not about physical ability.
Compound verbs & suffixes 18 Endings that attach to a verb to add meaning.
- 上（あ）げる ageru ～上げる — to finish ～ completely When 上げる is attached to the ます-stem of a verb, it means to carry an action through to the end and complete it. It often implies effort and a satisfying result. It is used mainly in writing and in somewhat formal speech.
- 合（あ）う au ～合う — do ～ to each other; to fit, to suit Added to a verb stem, 合う shows that people do the action to each other or together: “～ each other.” On its own, 合う means “to fit, to match, to suit.” Both uses are shown in the examples.
- だらけ darake ～だらけ — covered in ～, full of ～ (something bad) Added to a noun to say that something is covered with or full of an undesirable thing: “covered in / full of.” It attaches directly to a noun (泥, 間違い, ごみ). It is used for things the speaker dislikes.
- がち gachi ～がち — tends to ～ (usually undesirable) A suffix meaning something tends to happen or is often the case, mostly used for undesirable things. It attaches to the stem of a verb (ます-form without ます) or to a noun.
- がたい gatai ～がたい — hard to ～ A somewhat formal suffix meaning it is hard to do something, because of feelings or circumstances. It attaches to the stem of certain verbs such as believe, imagine, and understand.
- 気味（ぎみ） gimi ～気味 — a touch of ～ Shows that a condition or tendency is slightly present, though not clearly. It attaches to a verb stem or a noun and usually describes something unwelcome.
- かける kakeru ～かける — half-done, in the middle of ～ Shows an action that is half-done or just begun and not finished. It attaches to a verb stem, and ～かけの＋noun is a common form.
- 切（き）れない kirenai ～切れない — cannot finish, cannot fully ～ Means one cannot do something to the end because the amount or degree is too large. It attaches to a verb stem.
- 切（き）る kiru ～切る — do ～ completely, to the end Means finishing an action to the end or doing it completely. It attaches to a verb stem and covers both achievement after effort and using something up.
- 込（こ）む komu ～込む — into, crowded, deeply ～ Alone, 込む／混む means to be crowded. As a suffix after a verb stem, ～込む means moving into something (書き込む) or doing something thoroughly (考え込む).
- 向（む）け muke ～向け — intended for ～, aimed at ～ Shows that something is made for a particular person or group. It attaches to nouns and appears as ～向けの＋noun or ～向けに＋verb.
- 向（む）き muki ～向き — suited to ～, facing ～ Has two uses: something suits a person or purpose, and something faces a certain direction. It attaches to nouns, in the forms ～向きの＋noun and ～向きだ.
- 直（なお）す naosu ～直す — do ～ over again Attached to the stem of a verb, 直す means “do it over again, redo it (to fix or improve it).” It is used when something was wrong or unsatisfactory and you do it again from scratch.
- っぱなし ppanashi ～っぱなし — leaving ～ as it is Attached to a verb stem, it means leaving something in a state without taking care of it, or a state continuing for a long time. It often carries a negative feeling (careless or tiresome). Used in casual speech.
- っぽい ppoi ～っぽい — ～-ish / tends to be ～ A suffix added to nouns or verb stems that makes an i-adjective meaning “has the feel of ～, ～-ish” or “tends to ～.” It often shows a feature that is slightly negative or less than ideal. Casual.
- たて tate ～たて — “freshly ～ed / just done” The suffix たて attaches to the stem (masu-stem) of a verb and means “just finished being ～ed, fresh.” It describes things that are in the best, newest state, like freshly baked bread. It is used mainly with food and new items.
- 的（てき） teki ～的 — “-like / -al” (makes an adjective) The suffix 的 (てき) attaches to a noun (mostly a Sino-Japanese word) and makes a な-type adjective: 現実的 (realistic), 具体的 (concrete). It adds the meaning “having the nature of ～ / in the manner of ～.”
- 通（とお）す toosu ～通す — “do ～ all the way through” The suffix 通す attaches to the masu-stem of a verb and means to keep doing the action all the way to the end, without stopping or giving up. It is used for persistence or for finishing something from beginning to end.
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